SE423 · Annotated SlidesChapter 1.3 — Tailoring, Models, Methods, and Artifacts
Chapter 1.3 · Annotated slides

Tailoring, Models, Methods, and Artifacts

Two halves. Tailoring: adapting the approach to the project (why, what, and the 4-step process). Then a catalogue of models, methods and artifacts. The instructor wrote “don’t memorize, understand” on the models, so learn what each one is FOR rather than its details.

Slide text Instructor’s marks (from the original PDF) Study notes Highlight: key words Tips, tricks & traps Seen again elsewhere How it can come up

Tailoring, Models, Methods, and Artifacts

SE423: Software Project Management
1
Exam weight Low
  1. Tailoring = fitting the approach to the project. Models, methods and artifacts = the toolbox you tailor from.

Outline

  • Tailoring
  • Models, Methods, and Artifacts
2
Exam weight Low
  1. Two parts: Tailoring (slides 3–22) · Models, methods and artifacts (23–41).

Tailoring

3

Tailoring

  • Tailoring is the deliberate adaptation of the project management approach, governance, and processes to make them more suitable for the given environment and the work at hand.①
  • In a project environment, tailoring considers the development approach, processes, project life cycle, deliverables, and choice of people with whom to engage.
  • Many variables factor into the tailoring process, including the criticality of the project and the number of stakeholders involved.
  • Using these variables as an example, it is evident that the rigor, checks and balances, and reporting required for a critical project (e.g., building a nuclear reactor) are much greater than those for building a new office building.②
4
Exam weight High
  1. Tailoring = DELIBERATE adaptation of the approach, governance and processes to fit the environment and the work.
  2. Example: a nuclear reactor needs far more rigor and checks than an office building. Criticality drives the amount of process.

Related real-exam questions

Midterm 251 · V1 · Case Q2 · choose Agile, Waterfall or Hybrid and justify

Seen again

↻ Ch 1, slide 65 · Principle: Tailor based on context↻ Ch 1.2, slide 57 · More process for large or critical projects
🎯 How this can come up · 2 questions
MCQ

Tailoring is best defined as:

True / False

A critical project such as a nuclear reactor needs less rigor than an office building because experts run it.

Tailoring

  • Tailoring involves understanding the project context, goals, and operating environment.
  • Projects operate in complex environments that need to balance potentially competing demands that include, but are not limited to:
    • Delivering as quickly as possible,
    • Minimizing project costs,
    • Optimizing the value delivered,
    • Creating high-quality deliverables and outcomes,
    • Providing compliance with regulatory standards,
    • Satisfying diverse stakeholder expectations, and
    • Adapting to change.①
5
Exam weight Low
  1. Seven competing demands: speed, low cost, value, quality, compliance, stakeholder satisfaction, adapting to change. You cannot maximize all of them, which is why you tailor.

Why Tailor?

  • Tailoring produces direct and indirect benefits to organizations.
  • These include, but are not limited to:
    • More commitment from project team members who helped to tailor the approach,
    • Customer-oriented focus, as the needs of the customer are an important influencing factor in its development, and
    • More efficient use of project resources.①
6
Exam weight Medium
  1. Three benefits: the team commits more (they helped design the approach), a customer focus, and efficient use of resources.
Memory trickWhy tailor? “C.C.E.”: Commitment, Customer, Efficiency.
🎯 How this can come up · 1 question
MCQ

Which is a stated benefit of tailoring?

What to Tailor?

  • Project aspects that can be tailored include:
    • Life cycle and development approach selection,
    • Processes,
    • Engagement,
    • Tools, and
    • Methods and artifacts.①
7
Exam weight High
  1. Five things you can tailor: Life cycle and approach, Processes, Engagement, Tools, Methods and artifacts. Slides 8–12 take one each.
Memory trick“L.P.E.T.M.”: Let People Engage Their Methods.
🎯 How this can come up · 1 question
MCQ

Which of the following is NOT listed as a project aspect that can be tailored?

What to Tailor?

  • Project aspects that can be tailored include:
    • Life cycle and development approach selection,
      • Deciding on a life cycle and the phases of the life cycle is an example of tailoring.
      • Additional tailoring can be done when selecting the development and delivery approach for the project.
      • For instance, building a new data center could involve
        • (a) the use of predictive approaches for the physical building construction and finishing and
        • (b) an iterative approach for understanding and establishing the computing capabilities required.
        • Viewed from a project level, this combination of approaches represents a hybrid approach①, but the construction team and the computing team may only experience a predictive or iterative development approach.
8
Exam weight Medium
  1. Data centre example: building = predictive, computing capability = iterative, so the whole project is hybrid. Each team may only see its own approach.

Seen again

↻ Ch 1.2, slide 25 · Hybrid approach
🎯 How this can come up · 1 question
Scenario

A new data centre: the building is constructed in fixed phases, while the computing capabilities are explored in iterations. What is the overall approach?

What to Tailor?

  • Project aspects that can be tailored include:
    • Processes,
      • Process tailoring for the selected life cycle and development approach includes determining which portions or elements should be:
        • Added
        • Modified
        • Removed
        • Blended
        • Aligned①
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Exam weight Medium
  1. Five ways to tailor a process: Add, Modify, Remove, Blend, Align.
Memory trick“A.M.R.B.A.”: Add, Modify, Remove, Blend, Align.
🎯 How this can come up · 1 question
MCQ

Combining elements of two existing processes into one is which process-tailoring action?

What to Tailor?

  • Project aspects that can be tailored include:
    • Engagement,
      • Tailoring engagement for the people involved in the project includes:
        • People
        • Empowerment
        • Integration①
10
Exam weight Low
  1. Engagement tailoring: People (who, with which skills), Empowerment (how much freedom), Integration (with contractors and partners).

What to Tailor?

  • Project aspects that can be tailored include:
    • Tools
      • Selecting the tools (e.g., software or equipment) the project team will use for the project is a form of tailoring.
      • Often, the project team has the best insight into the most suitable tools for the situation, but those choices might need tempering based on the associated costs.
      • Additionally, organizational leaders can impose constraints that the project team cannot change.①
11
Exam weight Low
  1. The team usually knows the best tools, but cost and leadership constraints can override its choice.

What to Tailor?

  • Project aspects that can be tailored include:
    • Methods and artifacts
      • Tailoring the means that will be used to achieve the project outcomes is performed so that the methods are suited for the environment and the culture.
      • Tailoring the documents, templates, and other artifacts that will be used on the project helps to make sure the artifacts are appropriate for the project and the organization.①
12
Exam weight Low
  1. Tailor methods (how you work) and artifacts (documents and templates) to the project and the organization.

The Tailoring Process

Tailoring process: 1 select initial development approach → 2 tailor for organization → 3 tailor for project → 4 implement ongoing improvement (inspect and adapt)
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Exam weight High
  1. Four steps: Select the initial approach → Tailor for the organization → Tailor for the project → Implement ongoing improvement. The last step loops.
Memory trick“S.O.P.I.”: Select, Organization, Project, Improve.
🎯 How this can come up · 1 question
MCQ

What is the correct order of the tailoring process?

Selecting the Initial Development Approach

The four tailoring steps as icons: select approach, tailor for organization, tailor for project, ongoing improvement
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Under “Selecting the initial development approach”: “ex: agile, waterfall”.

Exam weight Low
  1. Step 1 is choosing the base approach (agile, waterfall, hybrid). The later steps refine it.

Assessing the Organizational and Project Factors When Tailoring

Organizational and project factors: environmental factors and models/methods/artifacts feed general guides; tailoring happens at organization level, then project level
15
Exam weight Low
  1. Two levels: the organization first produces methodologies for small and large projects; each project then tailors further (methodologies A–E).

Tailoring for the Project

  • Many attributes influence tailoring for the project.
  • These include, but are not limited to:
    • Product/deliverable,
    • Project team, and
    • Culture.①
16
Exam weight Low
  1. Three project attributes: Product/deliverable, Project team, Culture. Slides 17–19 expand each one.

Tailoring for the Project

  • Product/Deliverable
    • Attributes associated with the product or deliverable include, but are not limited to:
      • Compliance/criticality
      • Type of product/deliverable
      • Industry market
      • Technology
      • Time frame
      • Stability of requirements
      • Security.①
17
Exam weight Low
  1. Product attributes: compliance/criticality, type, industry, technology, time frame, requirement stability, security.

Tailoring for the Project

  • Project Team
    • Project team considerations include:
      • Project team size
      • Project team geography
      • Organizational distribution
      • Project team experience
      • Access to customer①
18
Exam weight Low
  1. Team attributes: size, geography, distribution, experience, access to the customer.

Tailoring for the Project

  • Culture (refers to the shared norms, beliefs, and practices within a company.)
  • When tailoring a project, you assess how the project management approach fits with this culture—whether it's formal and hierarchical, agile and collaborative, risk-averse, or innovation-driven.①
    • Evaluating the culture includes considerations regarding:
      • Buy-in (gaining support and commitment from key stakeholders, especially those who influence or are affected by the project)
      • Trust
      • Empowerment
      • Organizational culture②
19
Exam weight Low
  1. Culture = shared norms, beliefs and practices. Does it fit a formal, an agile, a risk-averse or an innovative approach?
  2. Evaluate: buy-in, trust, empowerment, organizational culture.

Seen again

↻ Ch 2, slide 23 · Organizational culture

Implement Ongoing Improvement

  • The process of tailoring is not a single, one-time exercise.①
  • During progressive elaboration, issues with how the project team is working, how the product or deliverable is evolving, and other learnings will indicate where further tailoring could bring improvements.
  • Review points, phase gates, and retrospectives all provide opportunities to inspect and adapt the process, development approach, and delivery frequency as necessary.②
20
Exam weight Medium
  1. Tailoring never ends. It continues through progressive elaboration.
  2. Review points, phase gates and retrospectives are the chances to inspect and adapt.
Exam trap“Tailoring is done once at the start” ✗.

Seen again

↻ Ch 1, slide 65 · Tailoring is iterative and continuous
🎯 How this can come up · 1 question
True / False

Retrospectives are an opportunity to further tailor the process.

Tailoring Suggestions by Situation

Table: situation → tailoring suggestion (e.g. poor quality deliverables → add feedback and quality steps; long approval delays → streamline approvals)
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Exam weight Medium
  1. Pattern: problem → add the missing control. Poor quality → more verification. Slow approvals → fewer approvers. Too much work in progress → value-stream mapping and kanban.
🎯 How this can come up · 1 question
Scenario

Your team keeps waiting days for approvals. What tailoring suggestion does the table give?

Summary

  • Tailoring involves the considered adaptation of approach, governance, and processes to make them more suitable for the given environment and the project at hand.
  • It involves the analysis, design, and deliberate modification of the people elements, the processes employed, and the tools used.
    • The tailoring process involves four steps:
      • Select initial approach
      • Tailor for the organization
      • Tailor for the project
      • Implement ongoing improvement①
22
Exam weight High
  1. One-line summary: tailor the people, processes and tools in 4 steps.
🎯 How this can come up · 1 question
Written

What is tailoring and what are the four steps of the tailoring process?

Models, Methods, and Artifacts

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Models, Methods, and Artifacts

  • This section provides a high-level description of some commonly used models, methods, and artifacts that are useful in managing projects.
  • The items listed in this section are not intended to be exhaustive or prescriptive, but rather to help project teams think about the options available to them.①
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Exam weight Low
  1. This is a menu, not a checklist.

Models, Methods, and Artifacts

  • Model
    • A model is a thinking strategy① to explain a process, framework, or phenomenon.
  • Method
    • A method is the means for achieving an outcome②, output, result, or project deliverable.③
  • Artifact
    • An artifact can be a template, document, output, or project deliverable.
25

Next to Artifact: “Project deliverable is a good example.”

Exam weight High
  1. Model = a way of THINKING (explains how something works).
  2. Method = a way of DOING (gets a result).
  3. Artifact = a THING (template, document, deliverable).
Memory trickModel = think, Method = do, Artifact = thing.

Related real-exam questions

Final 251 · Q1.4 · a PM tool or technique for a complex software project
🎯 How this can come up · 2 questions
MCQ

A risk register is best classified as a:

MCQ

“Estimating” is classified as a:

Tailoring the Principles and Domains

Principles guide behavior → performance domains, with models, methods and artifacts tailored to fit the project context
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Exam weight Low
  1. The whole PMBOK v7 picture: principles → domains → models, methods and artifacts, all tailored to the context.

Models, Methods, and Artifacts

  • As with any process, the use of models, methods, and artifacts has associated costs related to time, level of expertise/proficiency in use, impact on productivity, etc.
  • Project teams should consider these implications when deciding which elements to use.
  • As much as possible, project teams should avoid using anything that:
    • Duplicates or adds unnecessary effort,
    • Is not useful to the project team and its stakeholders,
    • Produces incorrect or misleading information, or
    • Caters to individual needs versus those of the project team.①
27
Exam weight Low
  1. Every tool has a cost. Avoid anything that duplicates work, is not useful, misleads, or serves one person instead of the team.

Commonly Used Models

  • Situational leadership models
    • Situational Leadership® II (helps project managers adapt their leadership style based on the development level of their team members)①
    • OSCAR Model (useful in project management for guiding conversations, solving problems, and supporting team development)②
  • Communication models
    • Cross-Cultural Communication (set of principles that help people from different cultural backgrounds communicate effectively)
    • Effectiveness of Communication Channels (Clarity, Speed, Richness, Recordability, Accessibility, Suitability)
    • Gulf of Execution and Evaluation (a concept from UX that focuses on the gap between a user's goal and the system’s ability to help them achieve it and the gap between the system’s response and the user’s ability to interpret it)
Situational leadership II curve (S1–S4 styles) and the OSCAR coaching model: Outcome, Situation, Choices, Actions, Review
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Next to the title: “don’t memorize, understand”.

Exam weight Medium
  1. Situational Leadership II: adapt your style (directing → coaching → supporting → delegating) to each member’s development level.
  2. OSCAR = Outcome, Situation, Choices, Actions, Review: a coaching conversation.
TipThe instructor said: understand these, do not memorize them. Know what each model is used for.

Seen again

↻ Ch 3, slide 71 · Leadership
🎯 How this can come up · 1 question
MCQ

Which model helps a PM adapt leadership style to each team member’s development level?

Commonly Used Models

  • Motivational models
    • Hygiene and Motivational Factors (Hygene: salary, benefits, working conditions, company policies, job security, etc. Motivational: Achievement, recognition, advancement, responsibility, the work itself, personal growth)①
    • Intrinsic (to the work itself) versus Extrinsic Motivation
    • Theory of the hierarchy of Needs (physiological->safety->love/belonging->esteem->self-actualization)②
    • Theory X, Theory Y, and Theory Z (These psychology of management styles models describe different assumptions about employee motivation and behavior)③
Theory X, Theory Y and Theory Z compared
29
Exam weight High
  1. Herzberg: hygiene factors (salary, conditions) only prevent dissatisfaction; motivators (achievement, recognition) actually motivate.
  2. Maslow: physiological → safety → belonging → esteem → self-actualization.
  3. Theory X = people avoid work (control them). Theory Y = people want to work (empower them). Theory Z = long-term loyalty and involvement.
Exam trapA salary raise is a HYGIENE factor, not a motivator, in Herzberg’s model.

Related real-exam questions

Final 251 · Q5.3 · recognizing contributions and keeping morale high

Seen again

↻ Ch 3, slide 38 · Motivation↻ Ch 3, slide 40 · Need satisfaction (Maslow)
🎯 How this can come up · 2 questions
MCQ

In Herzberg’s model, which is a MOTIVATOR rather than a hygiene factor?

MCQ

A manager who assumes employees dislike work and must be closely controlled follows:

Commonly Used Models

  • Change models
    • ADKAR® Model (focuses on individual transformation )
    • The 8-Step Process for Leading Change (Create a Sense of Urgency -> Build a Guiding Coalition -> Form a Strategic Vision and Initiatives -> Enlist a Volunteer Army -> Enable Action by Removing Barriers -> Generate Short-Term Wins -> Sustain Acceleration -> Institute Change)①
    • Virginia Satir Change Model (is a psychologically grounded framework that explains how individuals and organizations emotionally respond to change. )
    • Transition Model (a powerful framework for understanding the emotional and psychological journey people go through during change)②
ADKAR: Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability, Reinforcement
30
Exam weight Medium
  1. ADKAR (individual change): Awareness → Desire → Knowledge → Ability → Reinforcement.
  2. Kotter’s 8 steps (organizational change): urgency → coalition → vision → volunteer army → remove barriers → short-term wins → sustain → institute.
Memory trickADKAR spells itself: Aware, Desire, Know, Able, Reinforce.

Seen again

↻ Ch 1, slide 70 · Change principle↻ Ch 9, slide 3 · Change management
🎯 How this can come up · 1 question
MCQ

Which change model focuses on individual transformation?

Commonly Used Models

  • Complexity models
    • Cynefin Framework (help PMOs and project leads avoid applying rigid processes to unpredictable projects)①
    • Stacey Matrix (Helps determine whether to use Waterfall, Agile, or hybrid approaches.)②
Cynefin framework: obvious, complicated, complex, chaos
Stacey matrix: requirements agreement vs. technology certainty → simple, complicated, complex, chaotic
31
Exam weight Medium
  1. Cynefin: Obvious → best practice; Complicated → expert analysis; Complex → probe and experiment; Chaos → act first.
  2. Stacey matrix: the more uncertain the requirements and technology, the more agile you go.

Seen again

↻ Ch 1.2, slide 93 · Complexity in the Uncertainty domain
🎯 How this can come up · 1 question
MCQ

Which model helps decide between waterfall, agile or hybrid based on requirement and technology uncertainty?

Commonly Used Models

  • Project team development models
    • Tuckman Ladder (a classic model for understanding how project teams evolve over time.)①
    • Drexler/Sibbet Team Performance Model (is a comprehensive framework that maps out the seven predictable stages teams go through: orientation -> trust building -> goal clarification -> commitment -> implementation -> high performance -> renewal)②
Tuckman ladder: forming → storming → norming → performing → adjourning
32
Exam weight Medium
  1. Tuckman: Forming → Storming → Norming → Performing → Adjourning. Chapter 3 tests the stages.
  2. Drexler/Sibbet: 7 stages ending in renewal.

Related real-exam questions

Midterm 251 · V1 · MCQ 7 · Tuckman: the storming stageMidterm 251 · V2 · MCQ 7 · Tuckman: the storming stage

Seen again

↻ Ch 3, slide 8 · Tuckman’s model for team development
🎯 How this can come up · 1 question
MCQ

In Tuckman’s ladder, members competing for leadership and struggling with group processes is:

Models by Performance Domain

Table mapping each model to the performance domains it supports
34
Exam weight Low
  1. Reference table: which performance domains each item is useful in. Not for memorizing. Use it to pick a tool for a scenario.

Commonly Used Methods

  • Data gathering and analysis
  • Estimating
  • Meetings and events
  • Other methods①
35
Exam weight Low
  1. Method families: data gathering and analysis, estimating, meetings and events, other.

Seen again

↻ Ch 6, slide 8 · Estimation methods

Methods by Performance Domain (1)

Table mapping data-gathering and analysis methods to performance domains
36
Exam weight Low
  1. Reference table: which performance domains each item is useful in. Not for memorizing. Use it to pick a tool for a scenario.

Methods by Performance Domain (2)

Table mapping estimating, meeting and other methods to performance domains
37
Exam weight Low
  1. Reference table: which performance domains each item is useful in. Not for memorizing. Use it to pick a tool for a scenario.

Commonly Used Artifacts

  • Strategy Artifacts (Ex: Strategic Plan, Vision & Mission Statements, Roadmaps, Business Case)①
  • Logs and registers (Ex: issues log, risk analysis excel sheets, communication logs)②
  • Plans
  • Hierarchy charts
  • Baselines
  • Visual data and information
  • Reports
  • Agreements and contracts
  • Other artifacts
38
Exam weight Medium
  1. Strategy artifacts: strategic plan, vision and mission, roadmap, business case.
  2. Logs and registers: issue log, risk register, communication log.
🎯 How this can come up · 1 question
MCQ

A business case belongs to which artifact category?

Artifacts by Performance Domain (1)

Table mapping strategy, log and plan artifacts to performance domains
39
Exam weight Low
  1. Reference table: which performance domains each item is useful in. Not for memorizing. Use it to pick a tool for a scenario.

Artifacts by Performance Domain (2)

Table mapping hierarchy charts, baselines and visual artifacts to performance domains
40
Exam weight Low
  1. Reference table: which performance domains each item is useful in. Not for memorizing. Use it to pick a tool for a scenario.

Artifacts by Performance Domain (3)

Table mapping reports, agreements and other artifacts to performance domains
41
Exam weight Low
  1. Reference table: which performance domains each item is useful in. Not for memorizing. Use it to pick a tool for a scenario.