PSY101 - Term 252 Study Guide
Psychology
Made Memorable
Chapters 1, 2, 4 - 12 · Enhanced with exam strategies, tips & real questions
CH 01
Psychology's Five Major PerspectivesWhat is psychology? How do we study the mind and behavior?
Core Concepts
Definition: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes - everything from how neurons fire to why we dream and how we form relationships.
🔭 The 5 Major Perspectives
| Perspective | Focus | Key Figure(s) | Core Idea |
|---|---|---|---|
| Neuroscience | Brain, biology, genetics | - | Behavior is driven by biological processes |
| Psychodynamic | Unconscious mind | Freud | Unconscious conflicts shape behavior |
| Behavioral | Observable behavior | Watson, Skinner, Pavlov | Behavior is learned through environment |
| Cognitive | Thinking, memory, perception | - | Mental processes determine behavior |
| Humanistic | Free will, self-growth | Maslow, Rogers | Humans strive for self-actualization |
💡 Memory Tips & Tricks
- Mnemonic: "Never Please Be Completely Human" → Neuroscience, Psychodynamic, Behavioral, Cognitive, Humanistic
- To remember which focuses on the unconscious: think "Freud = hidden iceberg" → Psychodynamic
- Behavioral = only what you can observe → "if you can't see it, behaviorists don't care"
- Cognitive = like a computer processing information
- Humanistic = the positive one - humans are inherently good and seek growth
🧠 Mnemonic
"Never Please Be Completely Human"
Neuroscience · Psychodynamic · Behavioral · Cognitive · Humanistic
Key Issues in Psychology
Nature vs. Nurture
Are we shaped more by genetics (nature) or environment/experience (nurture)? Most modern psychologists say both interact.
Free Will vs. Determinism
Do we freely choose our behavior (humanistic view) or is behavior determined by forces beyond our control (behavioral/psychodynamic)?
Research Methods
Correlational Research: Examines the relationship between two variables. Does NOT establish cause and effect. Example: More TV → lower grades (correlation, not causation)
Experimental Research: Manipulates an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable. Uses control groups and random assignment. The ONLY method that proves causation.
Case Studies: In-depth study of one individual. Rich data but cannot generalize.
Surveys: Self-report data from large groups. Risk of response bias.
📝 Real Exam Questions (Past Papers)
Q1: Which perspective emphasizes the role of unconscious forces in behavior?
MCQ
Which psychological perspective emphasizes the role of unconscious forces and early childhood experiences in shaping behavior?
✅ Answer: B) Psychodynamic. Freud's psychodynamic theory centers on unconscious drives and childhood experiences as shapers of adult behavior.
Q2: Compare two psychological perspectives with examples
ESSAY
Compare and contrast the behavioral and cognitive perspectives in psychology, providing an example of how each would explain a student's fear of exams.
Model Answer:
Behavioral Perspective: A student's exam fear developed through conditioning. Perhaps they failed an exam while feeling anxious (classical conditioning), associating exams with anxiety. Behaviorists would use exposure therapy - gradually introducing exams in a safe environment.
Cognitive Perspective: The fear stems from negative thought patterns ("I always fail", "I'm not smart enough"). Cognitive therapy would target these irrational beliefs through restructuring techniques.
Key difference: Behavioral focuses on external observable behavior; Cognitive focuses on internal thought processes.
Behavioral Perspective: A student's exam fear developed through conditioning. Perhaps they failed an exam while feeling anxious (classical conditioning), associating exams with anxiety. Behaviorists would use exposure therapy - gradually introducing exams in a safe environment.
Cognitive Perspective: The fear stems from negative thought patterns ("I always fail", "I'm not smart enough"). Cognitive therapy would target these irrational beliefs through restructuring techniques.
Key difference: Behavioral focuses on external observable behavior; Cognitive focuses on internal thought processes.
CH 02
Neuroscience & BehaviorNeurons, the brain, nervous system, and neural communication
The Neuron
⚡ Neuron Anatomy
| Part | Function |
|---|---|
| Dendrites | Receive incoming signals from other neurons |
| Cell Body (Soma) | Integrates signals; contains nucleus |
| Axon | Carries the electrical impulse away from the cell body |
| Myelin Sheath | Fatty coating that speeds up transmission |
| Terminal Buttons | Release neurotransmitters into synapse |
| Synapse | Gap between neurons where chemical communication occurs |
💡 Memory Tips
- Message flow: Dendrites → Cell Body → Axon → Terminal Buttons → Synapse (think "DCATS")
- Dendrites = "Den" = receive guests (they receive signals)
- Myelin = speed highway - multiple sclerosis destroys myelin, slowing signals
- Remember: information travels in ONE direction - from dendrites to axon terminals
🧠 Mnemonic for Neuron Parts
D-C-A-M-T
Dendrite · Cell Body · Axon · Myelin · Terminal Buttons
Neural Communication
- Action potential travels down the axon
- Reaches terminal buttons
- Neurotransmitters are released into the synapse
- Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the receiving neuron's dendrites
- Either excitation (fires) or inhibition (doesn't fire)
- Reuptake - unused neurotransmitters are reabsorbed
Key Neurotransmitters
| Neurotransmitter | Role | Imbalance Effects |
|---|---|---|
| Dopamine | Reward, movement, motivation | Low → Parkinson's / depression; High → schizophrenia |
| Serotonin | Mood, sleep, appetite | Low → depression, anxiety |
| Acetylcholine | Muscle movement, memory | Low → Alzheimer's |
| GABA | Inhibition, reduces anxiety | Low → anxiety, seizures |
| Endorphins | Pain relief, pleasure | Opioids mimic these |
Nervous System Organization
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain + Spinal Cord
The command center. Processes information and coordinates responses.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
All nerves outside brain/spinal cord.
Somatic: voluntary movement
Autonomic: involuntary (sympathetic = fight-or-flight; parasympathetic = rest-digest)
📝 Real Exam Questions
Q: Which neurotransmitter is linked to Alzheimer's disease?
MCQ
Degeneration of neurons that produce which neurotransmitter is most associated with Alzheimer's disease?
✅ Answer: C) Acetylcholine. Alzheimer's is associated with a significant loss of acetylcholine-producing neurons, which affects memory and learning.
Q: Explain the role of the myelin sheath
SKILL
Explain the structure and function of the myelin sheath, and describe what happens when it is damaged.
Answer: The myelin sheath is a fatty layer of insulation that wraps around the axon of a neuron. It speeds up the transmission of nerve impulses by allowing them to "jump" between gaps (nodes of Ranvier). When the myelin sheath is damaged - as in multiple sclerosis (MS) - nerve signals slow down or become disrupted, leading to symptoms like muscle weakness, coordination problems, and fatigue.
CH 04
Consciousness, Sleep & DrugsStates of awareness, sleep stages, dreams, and psychoactive substances
Stages of Sleep
| Stage | Brain Activity | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Stage 1 | Alpha waves → theta | Light sleep, hypnic jerks, easy to wake |
| Stage 2 | Theta waves, sleep spindles, K-complexes | Heart rate slows, temperature drops |
| Stage 3 (SWS) | Delta waves (slow) | Deep sleep, hard to wake, growth hormone released |
| REM Sleep | Active - like being awake | Dreaming occurs, muscle paralysis (atonia), memory consolidation |
💡 Sleep Memory Tips
- REM = "Really Exciting Movies" - that's when vivid dreams happen
- We cycle through stages roughly every 90 minutes, 4 - 6 times per night
- Sleep spindles appear in Stage 2 - think "2 spindles on a spinning wheel"
- REM = Rapid Eye Movement - your eyes dart around because your brain is active
- Stage 3 = deepest sleep = when sleepwalking and night terrors occur
Dream Theories
Wish Fulfillment (Freud)
Dreams express unconscious wishes and desires. Manifest content = what you remember; Latent content = hidden meaning.
Activation-Synthesis
Dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during REM sleep. No deep meaning - just brain noise.
Information Processing
Dreams help the brain sort, process, and consolidate memories from the day. Like a nightly filing system.
Evolutionary Theory
Dreams simulate threats to allow safe practice of defensive responses. A survival mechanism.
Psychoactive Drugs
| Category | Effect | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Stimulants | Speed up CNS activity | Caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, nicotine |
| Depressants | Slow down CNS activity | Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines |
| Narcotics/Opioids | Pain relief, euphoria | Morphine, heroin, codeine |
| Hallucinogens | Alter perception and reality | LSD, marijuana, psilocybin |
🧠 Drug Categories Mnemonic
"Stimulate Down the Narrow Hall"
Stimulants · Depressants · Narcotics · Hallucinogens
📝 Real Exam Questions
Q: During which sleep stage does most dreaming occur?
MCQ
During which sleep stage does the most vivid dreaming occur, and the brain shows activity similar to wakefulness?
✅ Answer: D) REM Sleep. REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is characterized by high brain activity, muscle paralysis, and vivid dreaming. It occurs approximately every 90 minutes throughout the night.
Q: Discuss Freud's theory of dreams vs. Activation-Synthesis
ESSAY
Compare Freud's wish-fulfillment theory of dreams with the activation-synthesis hypothesis. Which do you find more scientifically supported?
Freud's Wish-Fulfillment: Dreams are disguised expressions of unconscious wishes. Manifest content (remembered) hides latent content (true meaning). Criticized as unscientific and unfalsifiable.
Activation-Synthesis (Hobson & McCarley): During REM, the brainstem randomly fires signals. The cortex tries to interpret these signals into a coherent narrative. Dreams have no deep meaning - they are byproducts of neural activity.
Scientific Support: Activation-synthesis is more scientifically supported as it is based on measurable brain activity. Modern neuroscience leans toward memory consolidation theories (information processing), which also have strong empirical backing.
Activation-Synthesis (Hobson & McCarley): During REM, the brainstem randomly fires signals. The cortex tries to interpret these signals into a coherent narrative. Dreams have no deep meaning - they are byproducts of neural activity.
Scientific Support: Activation-synthesis is more scientifically supported as it is based on measurable brain activity. Modern neuroscience leans toward memory consolidation theories (information processing), which also have strong empirical backing.
CH 05
Learning & ConditioningClassical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
| Term | Abbreviation | Example (Pavlov's Dog) |
|---|---|---|
| Unconditioned Stimulus | UCS | Food (naturally causes salivation) |
| Unconditioned Response | UCR | Salivation to food (natural response) |
| Neutral Stimulus → Conditioned Stimulus | NS → CS | Bell (paired with food repeatedly) |
| Conditioned Response | CR | Salivation to bell alone (learned) |
💡 Classical Conditioning Tips
- UC = Unconditioned = NATURAL (no learning required). UC responses are automatic.
- C = Conditioned = LEARNED (requires pairing/training).
- The bell → salivation is learned, so it's-the-CR.-Food-→-salivation-is-natural,-so-it's the UCR.
- Key related concepts: Extinction (CS alone stops CR), Spontaneous Recovery, Generalization, Discrimination
- Think of advertising: celebrity (UCS) + product (NS) → you like the product (CR)!
🧠 Mnemonic
U = Unlearned, C = Created
Unconditioned = Natural · Conditioned = Learned through association
Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
| Type | What Happens | Effect on Behavior | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Positive Reinforcement | Add something good | Increase behavior | Praise for good grade |
| Negative Reinforcement | Remove something bad | Increase behavior | Taking aspirin removes headache |
| Positive Punishment | Add something bad | Decrease behavior | Speeding ticket |
| Negative Punishment | Remove something good | Decrease behavior | Taking away phone privileges |
💡 The Most Misunderstood Concept: Negative Reinforcement
- Negative ≠ Punishment. Negative reinforcement increases behavior by removing something unpleasant.
- Example: Putting on a seatbelt (behavior) stops the annoying beeping (removal of bad thing) → you buckle up more.
- Both positive and negative REINFORCEMENT increase behavior. Both types of PUNISHMENT decrease it.
- Memory trick: "Positive = adding (+), Negative = removing (−). Reinforcement = more, Punishment = less."
Observational Learning (Bandura)
Social Learning Theory (Bandura): We learn by observing others - especially models. The famous Bobo Doll experiment showed children who watched adults hit an inflatable doll imitated that aggression.
ARRM Model: Attention → Retention → Reproduction → Motivation (key steps in observational learning)
📝 Real Exam Questions
Q: Identify the components of classical conditioning in a scenario
SKILL
A child who was stung by a bee at a park now feels afraid whenever they see a park. Identify the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR in this scenario.
UCS = Bee sting (naturally causes fear/pain)
UCR = Fear/pain response to bee sting (natural, unlearned)
CS = The park (was present during the sting, now paired with fear)
CR = Fear when seeing the park (learned, conditioned response)
Tip: UCS + NS → UCR, then NS becomes CS → CR
UCR = Fear/pain response to bee sting (natural, unlearned)
CS = The park (was present during the sting, now paired with fear)
CR = Fear when seeing the park (learned, conditioned response)
Tip: UCS + NS → UCR, then NS becomes CS → CR
Q: Negative reinforcement vs. punishment - which is misunderstood?
MCQ
A student studies harder to avoid parental criticism. This is an example of:
✅ Answer: B) Negative reinforcement. The student increases studying (behavior) to avoid/remove parental criticism (removal of an unpleasant stimulus). This is classic negative reinforcement.
CH 06
MemoryArchitecture, recall, forgetting, and memory disorders
Three-Stage Memory Model
🗂️ Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
| Stage | Duration | Capacity | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sensory Memory | Fractions of a second | Unlimited | Brief snapshot; iconic (visual) & echoic (auditory) |
| Short-Term Memory (STM) | ~20 - 30 seconds | 7 ± 2 items | Working memory; active processing; rehearsal extends |
| Long-Term Memory (LTM) | Lifetime | Essentially unlimited | Requires encoding; subject to retrieval failures |
💡 Memory Tips
- STM Capacity: "The Magical Number 7, Plus or Minus 2" (Miller's Law) - phone numbers are 7 digits for a reason!
- Use chunking to expand STM: instead of 1-4-9-5-1-2-0-1, remember 1495-1201
- To move info to LTM: use elaborative rehearsal (deep processing, connecting to existing knowledge) - far better than just repeating
- Spacing effect: studying over multiple sessions beats cramming
Long-Term Memory Types
Explicit (Declarative) Memory
Conscious, intentional recall.
Episodic: Personal events ("My first day of school")
Semantic: General knowledge ("Riyadh is in Saudi Arabia")
Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory
Unconscious, automatic recall.
Procedural: Skills (riding a bike, typing)
Priming: Prior exposure influences later response
Forgetting
Decay: Memory traces fade over time without use (Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve).
Proactive Interference: Old information interferes with learning new info. ("My old phone number interferes with remembering my new one.")
Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with remembering old info. ("Learning Spanish made me forget some French.")
Motivated Forgetting (Repression): Unconsciously forgetting painful memories (Freudian concept).
Encoding Failure: Information was never properly stored in the first place.
🧠 Interference Mnemonic
Pro = Pushes Forward · Retro = Reaches Back
Proactive = old disrupts new · Retroactive = new disrupts old
📝 Real Exam Questions
Q: Which type of memory stores skills like riding a bike?
MCQ
The memory of how to ride a bicycle, even after years of not doing it, is an example of which type of long-term memory?
✅ Answer: C) Procedural memory. Procedural memory stores motor skills and habits. It is a type of implicit (nondeclarative) memory that operates unconsciously and is remarkably resistant to forgetting.
CH 07
Thinking & IntelligenceProblem-solving, creativity, and measuring intelligence
Problem-Solving Strategies
Algorithms
Step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution. Slow but reliable. Example: Long division
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts that speed up decision-making. Faster but can lead to errors (cognitive biases). Example: "If it looks expensive, it must be good quality"
Insight
Sudden "aha!" moment where the solution appears without step-by-step reasoning.
Trial & Error
Trying different solutions until one works. Useful when few options exist.
Mental Set: Tendency to use strategies that worked before, even when a new approach would work better.
Functional Fixedness: Inability to see objects being used in ways other than their conventional function. (Classic: using a coin as a screwdriver)
Confirmation Bias: Seeking information that confirms existing beliefs, ignoring contradicting evidence.
Theories of Intelligence
Spearman's g factor: A single general intelligence underlies all mental abilities.
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences (8 types): Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Spatial, Musical, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist. Everyone has a different profile.
Sternberg's-Triarchic-Theory:-Three-types- - -Analytical-(academic),-Creative-(novel-problems),-Practical-(real-world,-"street smart").
💡 Intelligence Memory Tips
- Gardner = 8 types → think "8 flavors of intelligence" (not everyone is good at the same things)
- Sternberg = 3 types → ACP: Analytical, Creative, Practical
- IQ = Mental Age / Chronological Age × 100 (Binet's original formula)
- Average IQ = 100; normal range = 85 - 115
📝 Real Exam Questions
Q: Sternberg's triarchic theory includes which types of intelligence?
MCQ
According to Sternberg's triarchic theory, which of the following correctly lists the three types of intelligence?
✅ Answer: A) Sternberg proposed Analytical (academic problem solving), Creative (dealing with novel situations), and Practical (applying knowledge in real-world contexts).
CH 08
Motivation & EmotionTheories of motivation, hunger, achievement, and emotional experience
Theories of Motivation
| Theory | Core Idea | Key Concept |
|---|---|---|
| Instinct | Behavior is biologically programmed | Fixed action patterns |
| Drive-Reduction | Behavior reduces biological needs (homeostasis) | Primary drives (hunger, thirst) |
| Arousal | Optimal level of stimulation motivates behavior | Yerkes-Dodson Law |
| Incentive | External rewards pull behavior | Extrinsic motivation |
| Cognitive | Expectations and goals motivate behavior | Intrinsic motivation |
| Maslow's Hierarchy | Lower needs must be met before higher ones | Self-actualization at top |
🔺 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Bottom → Top)
- Physiological - food, water, sleep, shelter
- Safety - security, stability, freedom from fear
- Love/Belonging - relationships, friendship, intimacy
- Esteem - achievement, recognition, self-respect
- Self-Actualization - realizing full potential, creativity, peak experiences
🧠 Maslow Mnemonic
"People Seek Love Every Single Day"
Physiological · Safety · Love · Esteem · Self-actualization
Theories of Emotion
| Theory | Sequence | Key Point |
|---|---|---|
| James-Lange | Stimulus → Physical arousal → Emotion | "We feel afraid because we run" |
| Cannon-Bard | Stimulus → Emotion + Physical arousal (simultaneous) | Emotion and arousal occur at the same time |
| Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor) | Stimulus → Arousal + Cognitive Label → Emotion | We interpret arousal based on context |
📝 Real Exam Questions
Q: Maslow's hierarchy - which need comes after safety?
MCQ
According to Maslow's hierarchy, after physiological and safety needs are satisfied, the next level is:
✅ Answer: B) Love and belonging. The hierarchy goes: Physiological → Safety → Love/Belonging → Esteem → Self-Actualization. Each level must be substantially met before moving up.
Q: Two-Factor Theory of Emotion scenario
SKILL
You are on a scary roller coaster. Your heart is racing. When you see your crush at the end of the ride, you feel attracted to them. Which theory best explains this?
Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory. Your body is already aroused (racing heart) from the coaster. Your brain then labels that arousal based on context - seeing your crush - and interprets it as attraction. This is called misattribution of arousal. The study by Dutton & Aron (suspension bridge experiment) demonstrated exactly this phenomenon.
CH 09
Developmental PsychologyFrom conception to late adulthood - Piaget, Erikson, Kohlberg, and beyond
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
| Stage | Age | Key Achievement |
|---|---|---|
| Sensorimotor | 0 - 2 years | Object permanence (things exist even when out of sight) |
| Preoperational | 2 - 7 years | Language, symbolic thinking, egocentrism, lack of conservation |
| Concrete Operational | 7 - 11 years | Conservation, logical thinking about concrete objects |
| Formal Operational | 12+ years | Abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking |
💡 Piaget Memory Tips
- Mnemonic: "Silly People Can't Fly" → Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete, Formal
- Object permanence = a baby learns that mom still exists when she leaves the room (Sensorimotor)
- Egocentrism = a child thinks everyone sees the world from their perspective (Preoperational)
- Conservation = understanding that a tall thin glass and a short wide glass can hold the same amount of water (Concrete)
🧠 Piaget Mnemonic
"Silly People Can't Fly"
Sensorimotor · Preoperational · Concrete Operational · Formal Operational
Erikson's 8 Psychosocial Stages
| Stage | Age | Crisis | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 0 - 1 | Trust vs. Mistrust | Hope |
| 2 | 1 - 3 | Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt | Will |
| 3 | 3 - 6 | Initiative vs. Guilt | Purpose |
| 4 | 6 - 12 | Industry vs. Inferiority | Competence |
| 5 | 12 - 18 | Identity vs. Role Confusion | Fidelity |
| 6 | Young adult | Intimacy vs. Isolation | Love |
| 7 | Middle adult | Generativity vs. Stagnation | Care |
| 8 | Late adult | Integrity vs. Despair | Wisdom |
Parenting Styles (Baumrind)
Authoritative ✅
High warmth + high control. Sets rules but explains them. Best outcomes for children.
Authoritarian
Low warmth + high control. "Because I said so." Children may become anxious or rebellious.
Permissive
High warmth + low control. Few rules. Children may lack self-discipline.
Uninvolved (Neglectful)
Low warmth + low control. Worst outcomes for children's wellbeing.
📝 Real Exam Questions
Q: A teenager exploring identity - which Erikson stage?
MCQ
A 16-year-old is experimenting with different values, beliefs, and career paths, trying to figure out who they are. According to Erikson, they are working through which psychosocial crisis?
✅ Answer: C) Identity vs. Role Confusion. This is Stage 5 (ages 12 - 18). Adolescents explore different roles and ideologies to form a stable sense of self (identity). Failure leads to role confusion.
CH 10
Theories of PersonalityPsychodynamic, trait, humanistic approaches and assessment methods
Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory
Id
Operates on the pleasure principle. Primitive, unconscious, demands immediate gratification. Entirely unconscious.
Ego
Operates on the reality principle. Mediates between id's demands and reality. Mostly conscious.
Superego
Moral compass - internalized societal rules and ideals. Creates guilt and shame.
Defense Mechanisms
| Mechanism | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Repression | Pushing painful memories out of consciousness | Forgetting childhood trauma |
| Denial | Refusing to accept reality | "I don't have a problem." |
| Projection | Attributing your feelings to others | Thinking others are angry when you are |
| Rationalization | Creating logical excuses for unacceptable behavior | "I failed because the test was unfair." |
| Displacement | Redirecting emotions to a safer target | Yelling at sibling after fight with boss |
| Sublimation | Redirecting impulses into socially acceptable outlets | Using anger to excel at competitive sports |
| Regression | Reverting to earlier, childlike behavior under stress | Adult throwing tantrum when frustrated |
💡 Tips for Defense Mechanisms
- Repression vs. Suppression: Repression = unconscious forgetting; Suppression = conscious pushing away
- Projection = "it's them, not me" - you project your feelings onto others
- Sublimation is healthy - channeling negative energy positively (e.g., art, sports)
Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN)
🧠 Remember OCEAN
O · C · E · A · N
Openness · Conscientiousness · Extraversion · Agreeableness · Neuroticism
📝 Real Exam Questions
Q: A student blames the professor for their failure - which defense mechanism?
MCQ
A student who failed an exam tells herself it's because the professor wrote unfair questions, not because she didn't study. This is an example of:
✅ Answer: B) Rationalization. The student is creating a logical excuse (unfair test) to justify behavior she is uncomfortable accepting (not studying). This protects her self-esteem.
CH 11
Health Psychology & StressStress, coping, GAS model, and well-being
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) - Selye
⚠️ Three Stages of GAS
- Alarm Stage: Initial shock - body mobilizes to fight stressor (fight-or-flight). Cortisol released, heart rate increases.
- Resistance Stage: Body adapts and tries to cope with ongoing stress. Resources begin depleting.
- Exhaustion Stage: Prolonged stress depletes resources. Immune system weakens; illness and burnout may occur.
🧠 GAS Mnemonic
"Alarm Rings, Resist Exhaustion"
Alarm · Resistance · Exhaustion
Types of Stressors
Catastrophic Events
Sudden disasters affecting many people (earthquakes, war).
Life Changes
Significant life transitions (divorce, moving, job loss). Measured by Holmes-Rahe Social Readjustment Scale.
Daily Hassles
Minor everyday irritants (traffic, deadlines). Accumulated effect is significant.
Background Stressors
Chronic environmental conditions (poverty, noise, discrimination).
Coping Strategies
Problem-Focused Coping: Directly addressing the source of stress (studying more for the exam).
Emotion-Focused Coping: Managing emotional reactions to stress without changing the problem (talking to a friend, meditation).
Learned Helplessness (Seligman): When repeated uncontrollable stress leads to giving up, even when escape is possible. Linked to depression.
📝 Real Exam Questions
Q: GAS - during which stage does the body begin to show signs of wear?
MCQ
According to Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome, which stage is characterized by the body's resources becoming depleted and increased vulnerability to illness?
✅ Answer: C) Exhaustion stage. After prolonged stress, the body's adaptive resources are depleted. The immune system weakens, making individuals vulnerable to disease. This stage explains why chronic stress leads to health problems.
CH 12
Psychological DisordersAbnormal behavior, DSM, anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and more
Defining Abnormal Behavior - The 4 Ds
Deviance
Behavior that differs significantly from societal norms.
Distress
Behavior causes significant personal suffering.
Dysfunction
Behavior interferes with daily functioning (work, relationships).
Danger
Behavior poses a risk to self or others.
💡 The 4 Ds - Remember All Four
- Mnemonic: "Definitely Disturbing, Doesn't Deliver" → Deviance, Distress, Dysfunction, Danger
- A behavior must typically show more than one D to be classified as a disorder
- Context matters: wearing a swimsuit at the beach ≠ deviant; at a formal dinner = deviant
Major Anxiety Disorders
| Disorder | Key Features |
|---|---|
| Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) | Persistent, excessive worry about everyday things lasting 6+ months |
| Panic Disorder | Sudden, intense panic attacks; fear of future attacks |
| Specific Phobia | Intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation |
| Social Anxiety Disorder | Fear of social situations and negative evaluation |
| Agoraphobia | Fear of situations where escape is difficult; often tied to panic |
| OCD | Obsessions (intrusive thoughts) + compulsions (repetitive behaviors to reduce anxiety) |
| PTSD | Trauma-related flashbacks, avoidance, hypervigilance lasting 1+ month |
Mood Disorders
Major Depressive Disorder
Persistent sadness, loss of interest, sleep/appetite changes, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness lasting 2+ weeks.
Bipolar Disorder
Alternating episodes of mania (elevated mood, high energy, impulsivity) and depression. Previously called manic-depressive disorder.
Schizophrenia
Positive Symptoms (excess or distortions): Hallucinations (hearing/seeing things), Delusions (false beliefs), Disorganized thinking/speech
Negative Symptoms (loss of function): Flat affect, alogia (reduced speech), avolition (loss of motivation), anhedonia (loss of pleasure)
💡 Positive ≠ Good, Negative ≠ Bad
- Positive symptoms = things that are added (hallucinations, delusions)
- Negative symptoms = things that are taken away (flat emotion, motivation loss)
📝 Real Exam Questions
Q: OCD - distinguish obsessions from compulsions
SKILL
A student washes her hands 30 times a day because she can't stop thinking she will get seriously ill from germs, even though she knows this is unlikely. Identify and explain the obsession and compulsion in this case.
Obsession: The persistent, intrusive thought that she will get seriously ill from germs. This is an unwanted mental image/fear she cannot control.
Compulsion: Washing her hands 30 times a day. This is a repetitive behavior performed to temporarily reduce the anxiety caused by the obsession.
Key insight: The compulsion provides short-term relief but reinforces the OCD cycle - the more she washes, the more dependent on washing she becomes to feel safe.
Compulsion: Washing her hands 30 times a day. This is a repetitive behavior performed to temporarily reduce the anxiety caused by the obsession.
Key insight: The compulsion provides short-term relief but reinforces the OCD cycle - the more she washes, the more dependent on washing she becomes to feel safe.
Q: Which disorder involves alternating mania and depression?
MCQ
A patient experiences periods of extreme euphoria, decreased need for sleep, and rapid speech, followed by periods of deep sadness and hopelessness. This pattern is most consistent with:
✅ Answer: B) Bipolar Disorder. The cycling between mania (elevated mood, decreased need for sleep, rapid speech) and depression is the hallmark of bipolar disorder. Major depressive disorder involves depression only.