CH 3 — Slide Breakdown

Language and Meaning

How language works as a system of arbitrary symbols, why words never mean exactly one thing to everyone, and how the language we use shapes—and is shaped by—power, culture, and thought.

The Nature of Language

Language is a structured system of symbols that people use to communicate. Human language has several defining characteristics that distinguish it from other communication systems:

Arbitrary. There is no natural or necessary connection between a word (the symbol) and the thing it represents. The word "book" has no inherent "book-ness"—different languages use entirely different sounds for the same object.
Governed by rules. Language follows phonological rules (how sounds combine), syntactic rules (how words form grammatical sentences), semantic rules (how meaning is assigned), and pragmatic rules (how context shapes meaning in use).
Has layers of meaning. Words carry both a literal, dictionary meaning and additional meanings shaped by context and association.
Ever-changing. New words enter usage, old words fall out of use, and meanings shift over time (consider how the meaning of "literally" or "viral" has evolved).
Culturally transmitted. We learn language through our interactions with the people and culture around us.

How Words Create Meaning

Because language is symbolic, meaning does not live inside a word—it is constructed by the people using it. Two important distinctions help explain this:

Key Term

Denotative meaning — the literal, dictionary definition of a word.

Key Term

Connotative meaning — the associations, feelings, and implications a word carries beyond its literal definition, which can vary from person to person and culture to culture.

Example

The denotative meaning of "home" is simply the place where one lives. Connotatively, "home" might carry associations of warmth and safety for one person, and stress or conflict for another—the word is the same, but the meaning is not.

Meaning is also shaped by whether language is used concretely (specific, tangible, low-inference: "a 2019 red Honda Civic") or abstractly (general, vague, high-inference: "a car"). Concrete language reduces misunderstanding because it leaves less room for varied interpretation.

Language, Thought, and Culture

Communication scholars have long debated how closely language and thought are linked. The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis proposes that the language we speak shapes—and even limits—the way we think and perceive reality, because we can only easily conceptualize what we have words for.

Key Term

Linguistic determinism — the strong version of the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, holding that language completely determines thought.

Key Term

Linguistic relativity — the more widely accepted, moderate version, holding that language influences—but does not completely control—how we think and perceive the world.

Language is also central to cultural identity. The vocabulary a culture develops often reflects what that culture considers important (for example, some languages have many distinct words for concepts that English collapses into one general term), and losing a language can mean losing part of a culture's collective knowledge and worldview.

Language and Power

Language is never neutral—the words we choose (or are permitted to use) reflect and reinforce social power relationships.

Powerful vs. powerless language. Powerful language is direct and assertive ("We are meeting at 5 p.m."); powerless language includes hedges, tag questions, and disclaimers ("I could be wrong, but maybe we could meet around 5, if that's okay?") that can undercut a speaker's perceived credibility and authority.
Language and naming. Who gets to name people, places, and groups—and what names are used—is itself an exercise of power (for example, debates over preferred group labels).
Jargon and gatekeeping. Specialized, technical vocabulary (jargon) can build in-group identity among experts but can also exclude outsiders and function as a barrier to access.

Problematic Language Use

Biased or exclusionary language (sexist, racist, or otherwise identity-based language) reinforces stereotypes and can marginalize the people it describes.
Euphemisms substitute a milder or vaguer term for a harsh or blunt one (e.g., "passed away" instead of "died"). Euphemisms can be respectful, but overused they can also obscure the truth.
Equivocal language is deliberately vague or ambiguous language used to avoid committing to a clear meaning, often to dodge accountability.
Relative words only have meaning in comparison to something else (e.g., "small," "cheap," "fast") and can easily mislead if the comparison point is not made explicit.

Using Language Effectively

Use concrete, specific language instead of vague or abstract terms to reduce the chance of misunderstanding.
Own your statements by using "I" language ("I feel frustrated when…") instead of "you" language that can sound accusatory ("You always…").
Be sensitive to connotation—consider how your word choice might be received emotionally, not just what it technically denotes.
Adapt to your audience, avoiding unnecessary jargon when speaking with people outside your field.

Study Tip

A quick way to remember the denotative/connotative distinction for an exam: denotative = dictionary, connotative = connection (the feelings and associations attached to a word).

Chapter Summary

Language is an arbitrary, rule-governed, ever-changing, culturally transmitted symbol system.
Words carry both denotative (literal) and connotative (associative) meaning, and can be used concretely or abstractly.
The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis (linguistic determinism vs. linguistic relativity) describes how language may shape thought and perception.
Language reflects and reinforces power through powerful/powerless speech, naming, and jargon.
Biased language, euphemisms, equivocation, and relative words can all distort meaning or exclude people.
Effective language use favors concrete, owned ("I") statements adapted to the audience.

Denotative meaningLiteral, dictionary definition.

Connotative meaningAssociations and feelings a word carries.

Linguistic determinismLanguage fully determines thought.

Linguistic relativityLanguage influences but doesn't fully control thought.

Powerful/powerless languageDirect speech vs. hedged, tentative speech.

EuphemismA milder substitute for a blunt term.

EquivocationDeliberately vague or ambiguous language.